China's Four Inventions and the Influence of the East

  Papermaking, typography, fire powder and compass are four world-famous inventions of China, which were the symbol characterized the ancient civilization and had played an important role in promoting the social development. Of the four inventions, compass was directly related with navigation. The West acquired the technology via sea route, while papermaking, typography and powder were considered to be introduced to the West along the Silk Road. This exchange had a great impact on the economy and culture of Europe and Asia.
  Papermaking technology is invented by Chinese through a long history of production practice. Before China invented paper, ancient Egypt wrote on papyrus, and the countries in southwestern Asia used wood block to write.   Ancient Greece and Rome used papyrus imported from Egypt. In the Mediaeval Ages, Europe used sheepskin to write. In earlier times, China used bamboo slips, wooden tablets and silk cloths to record documents. Wooden tablet was heavy and cumbersome. Silk cloth was light but expensive. In early 2nd century, based on the experience accumulated from the generations of craftsmen, Cai Lun of the Eastern Han Dynasty succeeded in producing quality paper using fibres from linen, tree skin and broken fish net.   

  With the opening of the Silk Road, Chinese papers became important commodities, exported to the West via Xinjiang area. Stein discovered papers used by Sogdians, in the Great Wall relics in western Gansu. He estimated that the paper belonged to the middle period of the 2nd century. Moreover, he also discovered many pages of paper of official documents or private letters, in the ancient Lolan ruins, which were belonging to the last half of 2nd century. After 1949, Chinese archeolo-gists discovered the earliest papers of Eastern Han Dynasty in Xinjiang when wooden tablets were still in general use. It was after the 2nd century that paper became the popular material to write. Afterwards, paper was introduced first to the Central Asia.
  Although paper was used extensively in the Central Asia towards the end of the 5th century, China's papermaking technology was not introduced to this region until the middle period of the 8th century. Some Western scholars estimated that China's papermaking technology was introduced to the Central Asia around AD 704. However it is now generally acknowledged that AD 751 was an important year and that year Chinese papermaking technology was introduced to the Central Asia. According to the historic records of Tang Dynasty, in the July of 751, the general of Tang Dynasty Gao Xianzhi led Chinese army to fight Arabians in Talas and was defeated. Many soldiers were captured, and among them were craftsmen, locksmiths and papermaking workers. In 793, papermaking mills appeared in Persia. In 793-794, papermaking workshops were also established in Baghdad, Egypt, Morocco and several other countries. It was in the first half of the i2th century that Spain started to make papers. But the technology was still under the control of Arabians. In 1189, papermaking mills appeared in France. This is the earliest record of opening a workshop to make papers in a Christian country. Afterwards, papermaking technology reached Italy, Germany and Britain. Until the end of i8th century, paper ws made by hand Europe in the old fashioned Chinese tradition.
  Typography is another great invention of China. Some scholars suggested that, engraving printing appeared in China as early as 6th century AD. But others disagree and believed a later date. However, both Chinese and foreign scholars agreed engraving printing emerged in China no later than yth century Chinese made a breakthrough in typography toward the middle period of nth century. In that year, Bi Sheng invented the technique of interchangeable type sets which marked the beginning of a modern technology Bi Sheng used baked clay types which were replaced by type sets made of tin and copper.
  China's typography was gradual transferred to the West through the Silk Road. Scrolls of printed materials with images and letters were discovered in Dunhuang, Turpan and other places in Xinjiang. This indicated that engraving printing first arrived at Hexi and Xinjinag areas, and gradually traveled westward to Arabian areas. In 1880, in Egypt excavated large quantities of documents among which were 50 pieces of print work. Research indicated that, the print work dated from AD 900 to l35'o. The print format and the method of printing were similar to that of China.
  In i3th century, during the period of Yuan Dynasty, numerous travelers came to China via the Silk Road, seeing how Chinese printed books, paper currency and cards by engraving block and interchangeable typesets. And they brought these technologies back to Europe. In the i4th century, Europeans began to use engraving blocks. In the mid-i^th century, they began to use interchangeable typesets. In 1466, Italy was the first to set up printing shops. From then on the technology was widely available in Europe.
  Fire powder was invented by China. Alchemists first discovered natural material containing nitrate and sulfate and gradually they discovered that the two mix together and with they could make a fire power. China invented fire powder no later than Tang Dynasty. Afterwards, with the continual improvements of the technology to extract nitrate, fire powder could be used for military purpose. Toward the end of Tang Dynasty, "flying fire" of rockets was used in the battle fields. By the late North Song Dynasty, powerful cannon was used to fire ball of explosive against enemy.
  Fire powder was first introduced to Arabia together with alchemy. Between 8th and 9th centuries, stones of nitrate, the most important raw material for fire powder was introduced to Arabia and it was called "Chinese Snow." They were used tot to make pills of immortality and also used in the glass making process. Toward i2th-i3th centuries, Arabian merchants brought back from China the technology of making fire powder and fireworks on the Silk Road. After the i3th century, Mongolian army brought fire powder to the Central and Western Asia. In 1220, when Genghis Khan attacked Bukhara and Samarkand, he used artilleries and rockets. A great number of Chinese weapon craftmens arrived at the Central Asia. In the late i3th century, Europeans gained the knowledge of fire powder from Arabians. Toward the early i4th century, Europe acquired the technology to make gun power and used firearms in the war against Islamic countries. Hence Europe mastered the technology.
  With the opening of the Silk Road, the cultural exchange between the East and the West became more frequent. Chinese culture continuously spread westwards. Chinese astronomy was well developed from ancient times. Chinese astronomers in Yuan Dynasty were invited to work at the Malagia Observatory in the present Azerbaijan.
  In 8th and 9th centuries AD, Chinese medicine was reached Arabian regions with the development of alchemy Medical Science, written by the famous Arabian medical scientist Avicenna discussed the technique of pulse examination. His method was very similar to that of Chinese medical science. In the late i6th century and the early lyth century, Matteo Ricci, Giulio Aleni and other Europeans arrived at China and they started to translate books of Chinese medicine into European languages. For the first time they introduced Chinese Compendium of Materia Medica to Europe.
  It is worth to note that the Chinese paper manufacture and printing technology were introduced to the West as the advanced technologies and at the same time their introduction also showed Europe the excellent Chinese culture. Chinese paper manufacture and printing technology affected the Western culture and ideology a great deal and it is difficult to image how the European societies would have developed without their arrival?
At the same time when Chinese culture went to the West, other Asian and European cultures continuously came eastwards to China along the Silk Road which affected the development of China to a great extend. The followings played an important role in the transformation of Chinese societies since their arrival: acrobatics, dramas, music, dance and religion.

The Influence of the Western Cultures on Chinese Society

  The Western acrobatics had long been introduced to China. This was recorded in Shiji (Records of the Grand Historian). In Han Dynasty, most of foreign acrobatics were performed in open squares. Their performances included various acts of fighting, boxing, athletics, masquerade, singing and dancing, contest with animals and magic.  

   In Tang Dynasty, and the culture exchanges between China and the West increased after the opening of the Silk Road. A variety of dramas, acrobatics and circuses from the Central Asia and the Western countries came to China. It was recorded that during the reign of Tang Xuanzong, the royal palace had hundreds of horses and trainers to train horses to dance.
  In early Tang Dynasty, Polo ball game was introduced from Persia to China. It was a game to be played while riding on a horse. It was very popular with the royalties when in the royal palace prepared a special field for the game and a special pavilion was built for people to watch the game. Several emperors were reported to have mastered the game. The game was popular until the end of Ming Dynasty.
  In Tang Dynasty, a game involving sprinkling water was also popular. It was invented in the Central Asia. People in both Chang'an and Luoyang liked the game very much and soon after even emperors began to play the game.
As early as when Zhang Qian traveled to the Western Regions, foreign music began to reach China. The music of Central Asia and India spread to China during After-Wei and Pre-Liang periods. The music of Samarkand was introduced to China when Wu Zetian was in power.
Several musical instruments were introduced to China from Persia and India. Konghou and lute were Persian musical instruments, introduced to China in Western Han Dynasty. Some argued that lute was originated in ancient India. However, all these musical instruments were improved and became part of traditional Chinese musical instruments.
  In Tang Dynasty, there were exercise dance and soft dance or martial dance and culture dance. There were three kinds of exercise dance and they were Huxuan dance, Huteng dance and Zhezhi dance. All of them were introduced to China from the Central Asia.